Buddhist Zen

Buddhism is one of the major religions of the ancient civilization which had been retained and even strengthened through the course of the human development. It has different schools of thought. Included in these subdivisions is the Zen Buddhism which can be directly described as the school of thought that deals mainly with the different principles of the inner self related to meditation. Along with the Zen Buddhism, which is also referred to as Ch’an or Son, are the other schools such as the Mahayana, Theravada, and Vajrayana (Yool, 1992). Zen can be defined through different aspects and meanings.One of the main definitions of Zen is related to meditation. On the other hand, certain groups perceive Zen as independent from Zen Buddhism. The main objective of the study that was conducted is to be able to present a view on the main principles of Zen Buddhism and related practices. Also, due to the development of these principles, there are different approaches to the practice of Zen Buddhism. The varying approaches and kinds of Zen Buddhism on the basis of location and principles are included in the main issue discussed and studied in research that was conducted.Specifically the objectives of the research revolve around the view on Zen Buddhism. One is to be able to discuss the origin and the history of Zen Buddhism to be able to determine the possible basis of the principles and beliefs of the religion. Another objective is to be able to present the different principles and beliefs of Zen Buddhism. Based on the beliefs and practices, there are different forms of Zen Buddhism. Included in the types are the schools of thought that fall under Zen.In addition, the development of Zen in the different countries is also included in the topics that will be discussed. Another objective is to be able to present a comparative analysis of the Zen and the Pureland Buddhism. Upon the determination of the development of Zen Buddhism through the course of history and the different localities, it is important to determine the importance of the school of thought in the modern era, a view against the concepts of the modern world. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMBeing one of the major religions in the ancient and modern society, the study focused on the related issue can be considered as essential especially to the determination of the culture and development of the society wherein the religion and the belief originated and flourished. This is due to the fact that Zen Buddhism, being one of the schools of thought of Buddhism, can be considered to have a significant influence to the views and beliefs of the present society. The study can contribute in the increase of consciousness of the public on the belief of one of the most important schools of thought.The aim of the study is to present a particular view on Zen Buddhism and its present role in the modern society. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The study that was conducted is mainly based on the research that w as undertaken prior to the study. These include the documents that express the written account of the Zen Buddhism, with its principles, teachings and roles in the culture. One extensive account and study was conducted by D. T. Suzuki which includes a compilation of the practices incorporated in Zen Buddhism.The author presented an in depth organization of knowledge on Zen Buddhism that can be considered as one of the contributing factors in the increase of interest in the subject. Being one of the forerunners in the study of Zen Buddhism, the works of Suzuki can be considered as an importance reference in the study related to Zen. Based on the study, Zen can be defined as a way of life that focuses on the being itself. The factors that revolve around the person and his environment are the main concern of the principles of Zen.It describes the different process mainly targeting the spirit to be able to achieve freedom specifically on the spiritual aspect, the beliefs equating to a p ositive outlook in life (Suzuki, 1960). The main concentration is the body where in development of the view and outlook of the person can be improved. Once the freedom of the spirit is achieved, the state of happiness can ultimately be viewed and experienced on the basis of the freedom of the spirit. On the basis of different writings, the principles of Zen can be interpreted on different approaches and forms.The Doctrine of Enlightenment can be considered as one of the basic teachings related to Zen in China. On the study that was conducted, the analysis was based on the concept of happiness as presented by Zen Buddhism. One of the issues that were discussed is in relation to the position of Zen Buddhism in the principles of Buddhism as a school of thought. This can be attributed to the fact that there are questions on the relationship of Zen Buddhism in the main teachings of Buddhism. These queries are related to the differences on the principles of Zen with the main body of Buddh ism.Certain groups even consider Zen Buddhism as an aversion from the teachings of Buddhism. But it is important to consider two scenarios in the judgment of whether the teachings divert from the true sense of Buddhism or not. One focus can be of the methods or techniques to be able to achieve the ends of the beliefs. For example, to be able to achieve happiness or the state of enlightenment there are certain differences for Zen Buddhism and the original Buddhism in India (Suzuki, 1961). Another view in terms of the historical focus on the definition and application of Zen Buddhism, H., Dumoulin is one of the most important authors. The focus of the works presented is Zen enlightenment and the historical origins of Zen Buddhism specifically in the most important places, India and China where Zen Buddhism flourished (Dumoulin, 1979; Dumoulin, 2005). Zen Buddhism, even against the beliefs of other groups is one of the major divisions of Buddhism that originated in India but developed in the China. Presented in the said work are queries that can be related to the diverting values and even origins of Zen and Buddhism (Dumoulin, 2005). These cases can be viewed as the different sides of a complex concept.But it is important to consider, though, that the application of principles of religion and even traditions adapt to the needs of the particular locality and group of people. Thus, such queries can be considered significant only on the perspective that it can lead to more exploration of the issue. The superficial judgment and analysis of the religion and culture can be considered futile specifically when the standards are set by the factions that are not intrinsic of the group. Another important query to consider is the areas to consider in the study of Zen Buddhism. There are different outlooks and views regarding Zen Buddhism.These views include the psychological, the ontological and the epistemological views. It is important to consider that the role and the pri nciples of Zen Buddhism transcend the different inclusions that are tend to be set by the different fields of disciplines (Suzuki, 1961; Suzuki, 1962). It is then important to consider the fact that in issues such as conceptual definitions, the limitations to the definitions that are often set hinders the probability of understanding. Although this is the case, it is important to set standards and classification yardstick to be able to capture the essence of the term.In a study of concepts and views of any area, it is important to consider that the presentation of data is needed to focus on a district aspect. This is due to the fact that these concepts, e. g. religion cannot be delineated by standards because the effects extend through different aspects and facets. Understanding then requires presentation of a certain aspect and the background of the concept. Zen Buddhism can be considered as an important area of Buddhism, an important area of study due to the effects on the culture of the particular areas that practice the belief.One of the ways to be able to present and achieve an understanding is to target a particular area. In the study conducted, the different approaches and types of Zen Buddhism developed in different locality is the main concentration. Although this is the case, to be able to present a view means to create the environment and the factors and relationships related to the issue. In the study of Zen Buddhism, the determination of the relationship of the principles of Zen to the issues of the modern society is another important focus.One example that can be given is the relationship of Zen Buddhism on psychology and psychotherapy. The relationship can be attributed to the fact that the principles of the religion target the achievement of a state of being which usually affects both the psychological state. It can clearly be related to the goal to achieve a certain level of consciousness. One scenario that was studies was related to the inter action of the eastern and the western methods, namely psychotherapy and Buddhism. These methods are both aimed to be able to improve the behavioral state of an individual.The eastern method as the traditional method is represented by Buddhism and the western method is represented by psychotherapy as the modern method. But this is only one of the situations that describe the extent of coverage of Zen and Zen Buddhism on the society (Muramoto & Young-Eisendrath, 2002). METHODOLOGY To be able to determine and present an overview on the philosophies and beliefs of Zen Buddhism mainly the different approaches and types, the use of a descriptive type of research was conducted.The objective in this type of research is mainly to present a particular perspective on the topic of interest. It also presents the possible factors and issues that can be related to the subject that is under study. It was undertaken through the study of the information that is made available through prior work of co ntemporary authors. The research was conducted through the integration of the different published references and other available sources. The issue that deals with the view of the population can be presented through the gathering of information related to the issue.The method that was utilized in the process is qualitative research. The said method can be utilized for historical and conceptual issues that are given an in depth view. In relation to the results of the study that was conducted, an investigation on the documents and published works that were conducted prior to the research is one of the primary phases undertaken to be able to achieve the set goals. The areas that can be considered of priority include the subjects and issues related to Zen Buddhism such as its origin and history.The principles and beliefs related to Zen Buddhism are the basic knowledge also included in the research. From these principles variations and forms are then studied on the basis of the locality and place of origin. Also included in the search for references are the sources that can be utilized for the discussion and comparative analysis of Zen and the Pureland Buddhism. Mainly, the achievement of the needed data was undertaken through data gathering on the printed and published works on the topic.Description, data gathering of pertinent information and analysis are included in the process undertaken to be able to achieve the goals of the research. The analysis of the data gathered that are essential to the topic is done mainly through the process of induction (Baum, 1984; Hoepfl, 1997). In the research undertaken, the presentation of the overview and the different approaches to Zen Buddhism along with the present role of the school of thought in the present generation is the mainly based on the accumulated facts and organized data from reputable and historical published records and studies.The concepts that were gathered were recorded, measured, organized and analyzed to b e able to come up with the output from published references. The works done by different authors are the main basis of the generalization and conclusion that are established. This phase is important primarily on the basis that the conclusion can be considered as the main end of the process of research. In any sociological process that is under study, there are always varying sides and approaches, which are included in the important part of the research conducted. RESULTSThe issues related to Zen Buddhism revolve on different concepts which mainly include Zen, Buddhism and the different forms of Zen Buddhism. These terms are the primary phase to be able to achieve an understanding of Zen Buddhism, the different forms and the present role in the modern society. I. An Introduction to Zen Buddhism Zen Buddhism Defined There are different attributes within which Zen can be defined and described. This can be attributed to the fact that the concept can affect different facets and aspects n amely including religion, arts, culture and even the different facets of an individual.Zen can be considered as the art improving oneself on the basis of freeing the spiritual well being. The state of freedom and the achievement of enlightenment can be considered as the major goal. From the point of view of the Zen Buddhism, improving the inner person can strengthen other aspects of a person. The body is considered as the most important instrument in the principles of the group (Suzuki, 1961). The main teachings revolve around the fact that the enlightenment and freedom should be achieved by the soul and the spiritual segment of an individual.Etymological Perspective Based on etymological meaning Zen can be attributed as a short term for zenna, which can be traced as related to the Mandarin term channa. Literally, the term is related to the Sanskrit term (dhyana) or meditation. In Chinese writing it is chan, Seon in Korea and Thi? n in Vietnam. Due to the differences in equivalent t erms in different locality, it can be considered important to present the principles on the basis of the development in different localities (Dumoulin, 2005). Zen is one of the sects of Buddhism.It is one of the important schools of thought that mainly focus on meditation, also referred to as zazen. The main focus is the stage of enlightenment through wisdom of the spirit. The main proponent and founder of Buddhism is Buddha Siddhartha Gautama. Being one of the important subdivisions of Buddhism, it is considered to have an important religious and experiential effect on the believers and practitioners. Due to the fact that the teachings are based on theoretical established thought, Zen Buddhism is considered to be a school of religious thought.This can be translated as a basis for decision making for different cultures in Asia, e. g. India and China (Dumoulin, 2005; Suzuki, 1960). Variety of Meanings of Zen Zen can be of different meanings on different people on the basis of their o rientation and affective factors. Although the principles of Zen are meant to be basic, the interpretation often varies, creating different perspective and subjective meaning to the term. The term Zen has different related meanings. One is meditation which can be related to its etymological interpretation and basic meaning in Buddhism (Dumoulin, 2005; Suzuki, 1960).Aside form the said interpretation the other possible meanings of Zen are cosmic reality and the meaning in Zen Buddhism (Kit, 2002). It is important though to consider the fact that to be able to achieve a clear grasp of the meaning of Zen Buddhism, the primary issue to consider is the understanding of Buddhism as a religion. This is due to the fact that Zen Buddhism and its techniques are rooted to the religion that originated in India although many people may contradict due to differences of superficial representations of the two subject matters (Dumoulin, 2005).The discussion on the true meaning of Zen, even at the si mplest perspective can be considered as a complex process. One view is Zen Buddhism being a religion. This is the basis perspective since Buddhism is one of the most important and most established religions. It is important to consider the fact that Zen cannot be captured in just a single definition due to the complexity of its role. In that case, Zen can be considered as a synergy of different definitions and roles which vary on the basis of the perspective needed.Zen Buddhism can be a way of life, a culture and a religious principle. Subjectivity can also play an influential role in the definition of Zen Buddhism. Thus, it is important to consider the different approaches to the study of Zen. One important perspective is the historical basis of classification, mainly based on the development over a timeline. Origin and History of Zen Buddhism In the study of the history of Buddhism, it is important to consider the development and the spread of Buddhism in different countries in As ia.This can be considered important to be able to determine the development of the varying approaches in the practice of Zen Buddhism. The Buddhism Timeline To be able to determine the root of the principles of Zen Buddhism, it is important to study the timeline in the development of the said school of thought. Due to the fact t hat Buddhism can be considered as one of the oldest and most established religions in Asia, the origins of Buddhism can be traced back to the 500 BC. This is the time wherein Buddhism was established (Dumoulin, 2005; McCowan, n. d. ; Suzuki, 1960).Although this is the case, the influences in the practices incorporated in Buddhism can be traced back even through the prehistoric period, wherein the Indus Valley civilization can already be observed to practice meditation. This practice can be considered as one of the most important activity and the basis for the activity of the Zen Buddhism. On the other hand, the said practice was brought to India due to movem ents of different groups of people. Included in the cultures and traditions that was given to India is the Vedas, Brahma, priesthood, the caste and rituals.Also the strengthening of the Dharmic religions which occurred through the 1800 to 470 BCE is followed by the birth of the founder of Buddhism between 624 to 560 BCE (Watterson, 2004). The period of enlightenment of the great teacher of Buddhism in 589 to 525 BCE, can be considered as the revelation of the basic teachings and principles of Buddhism. The commencement of the Four Noble Truths occurred in the Dhamma-vinaya, the religion he established. But after his death between 544-480 BCE, the Buddhists Council became active in the establishment of the religion.The 1st – 3rd Buddhist Councils expanded the coverage of the religion and even included leaders of the country such as King Asoka who converted in 297 BCE. In the said councils the different issues related to Buddhism are discussed and resolved (Watterson, 2004). Du ring this period, the influence of Buddhism reached other parts of Asia, causing the rise of the different forms of Buddhism in different countries which can be attributed to the local and domestic cultures and traditions of the particular area. Buddhism can be considered to adapt and blend to the culture of the people.

Starbucks International

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An appropriate example would be the coffee in Italy-which is relati vely cheaper than Starbucks regular coffee.An espresso in Northern Italy is around 67 cents whereas in the south it can fall close to 55 cents. Meanwhile, Americans pay around $1. 50 for their espresso-for such reason, Starbucks would have to lower the prices if they wish to enter the Italian market for the simple reason to be able to compete in such an environment-basically going back to the point of controlling their prices as their competitors do. Starbucks have faced uncontrollable elements as well-mostly to do with foreign markets.To begin with are the issues that the brand might face trying to balance between domestic and international markets. There are several different elements of risk that they face when entering a foreign market such as competitive forces, technology levels, distribution structures, the nation’s infrastructure and other forces that add in such a cultural, political and legal. All these elements tie in with how Starbucks runs its business in an inte rnational market.Moreover, as Starbucks continues to expand, it will have to be increasingly sensitive to cultural challenges. One example could be Starbucks facing grave challenges with Japan’s ‘chilled coffee’ market with many lookalikes rivalling with the corporate brand making it more difficult for them to compete overseas. Being a global brand, Starbucks has mastered their skills to expand to other international markets-as long as they keep in check their controllable elements and try and resolve the uncontrollable ones.Q2) What are the major sources of risk facing the company? Discuss potential solutions. A2) Being such a major international brand-Starbucks is likely to face certain risks. To begin with, Starbucks has managed to saturate most of its market in United States. According to sources, there is a Starbucks for every 9,400 people in Seattle. Blanketing areas with their stores is not necessarily an advantage for Starbucks, it has even led to consume rs being frustrated with the low level of choice and causing a great dislike towards the global brand all together.Another risk facing Starbucks is the new, younger generation. Today’s 20 and early thirty year old consumers are not ready to pay the high prices for their daily coffee. Due to the recession, much of this generation was brought up on less costly brands such as McDonald’s McCafe, and is unlikely to shift to Starbucks or any other major brand even once recession has worn off. Consumer risks are not the only ones troubling Starbucks-the global brand also faces internal issues with employee burn out rate increasing over the years.Dissatisfaction over being over worked and under paid is starting to become synonymous with the Starbucks name causing frustrated store managers and a higher percentage of employee turnover. An example of this internal risk was when a lawsuit caused Starbucks a good $18 million, leaving them with decreased profit share. Analysts state that Starbucks can only maintain about 15% square footage growth in the United States, for only about two more years. After that, it will have to depend aggressively on overseas growth to maintain their annual 20% revenue growth.Expansion and cannibalization risk is also another element. Expanding at such an extreme rate with a constant growth in stores around the world have seen to cause some major cultural issues as well, for example Italy being threatened from changing their lifestyles of drinking coffee all together. Solutions: Advertising campaigns and positive public awareness could help improve their global image. Starbucks should being focusing on International expansion rather than saturating their domestic market-the more people they reach out to, the more the brand is likely to survive and make a profit.Having such an international image can have a disadvantage as well-Starbucks could learn to adapt to more cultural differences & requirements rather than concentrating on promoting their domestic image internationally as well. Through promotion and advertising Starbucks should begin to shift their target audience; the younger generation is a key element to their product life cycle-but re-positioning their products and focusing on the Middle class of today, Starbucks could find a solution within and continue to grow for years to come.Market research could be another solution that Starbucks can look into. By creating Global Strategies, success can be achieved by moulding according to the country’s culture and belief and by introducing products that are more likely to be accepted by people from different areas of the world. A certain kind of marketing is unlikely to appeal to an audience from all over the world-Starbucks should be flexible enough to create their image according to a different culture each time.The feeling of dissatisfaction from the employees of Starbucks should be resolved. This solution can be achieved by offering over time pa yment or incentive for every employee-as long as Starbucks is willing to take care of its people, employee turnover will be likely to reduce and their internal mechanics will run smoothly-thus causing them clarity to look at other major issues, such as international marketing and expansion.Q3) Critique Starbucks overall Corporate Strategy A3) In the case of Starbucks, the corporate strategy that they have implemented is unique to their industry which has allowed them to stand apart from their major competitors. It can be summarized shortly-Starbucks aims to provide quality coffee wherever they go.One of their strategies would be vertical integration, by having a close relationship from the start to the finish of their product by having their own supply chain and roasting their own coffee-Quality is one key element that Starbucks has never compromised on ( and from the looks of it, will be unwilling to do so in the near future as well) Modification of their products is another way St arbucks handles it strategy, by aiming at partnering with other successful brands and going for products that they can also sell in stores apart from their chain’s and focusing on the other services they provide such as pre order, Wi-Fi and partnering with the movie and music industry. Even without spending a lot on international advertisement, Starbucks makes sure to stay in the limelight, by making the right decisions to partner with companies that are appealing to their overall consumer base.In addition, Starbucks has begun to target the younger generation (that is likely to stray from the higher priced quality coffee) by boosting other services they provide. Instead of succumbing to the lower price demand, Starbucks has upped their other services and began advertising accordingly and directly aiming at the new generation’s consumer base. It is probably also worth mentioning how Starbucks has still managed to follow the usual, normal expansion routine as well. They began by aiming at their domestic market aggressively and once this had been saturated and developed completely, the organization began increasing their presence internationally. According to the Starbucks annual report in 2009, their international market grew by a rapid 7. 7% in 2009.Overall, Starbucks aims at growing internationally, by using other sources apart from the regular stereotypes, but at the same time, Starbucks aims to keep its footing in their domestic market as strong as they have been since the inception itself. Q4) How might Starbucks improve profitability in Japan? A4) Due to the high level of competition that Starbucks faces in Japan, it should begin by reconsidering their pricing strategy. Most of Japan still believes that Starbucks is slightly overpriced, and since there are so many different competitors, it is an easy decision for the consumer in Japan to choose another brand-based simply on the lower price.They could begin by lowering their prices slightly, w here they would still make a profit, but would fall within the range of other competitors so more consumers would be likely to choose Starbucks-mainly due to the great quality of product (and now better price as well) Another method that Starbucks could use is repositioning their product and service in Japan. According to sources, Japanese youth is more likely to spend their time in a constructive manner. Due to Starbucks and the competitors in Japan providing similar fare, it is easy for the competitor to eat up the Starbucks share, thus it would be ideal for the global brand to increase their benefits (or reduce price further).One benefit could be introducing the online order system in Japan, so Japanese consumers could pre order online, saving them time and using this benefit over the other competitors. By advertising with the domestic brands in Japan, Starbucks could possibly make itself synonymous with Japan’s youth-where they feel inclined to have Starbucks instead if c ompetitor coffee because their other major brands/artists seem to be having Starbucks as well. Including customized products for its consumers in Japan is also helping Starbucks stay on top of their globalization plans. This strategy increased same store sales and overall profits. By adding the drive through service, Starbucks is targeting their Japanese audience the most fruitful and profitable way.

Critically Thinking about Your Morning Products Research Paper

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2-1-2 - Assignment Example Prior to recession that started in 2008, economy of Lithuania was found to be growing at the rate of 8%. In 2004 the country joined in European Union. It has also joined World Trade Organization. Most of the trades take place with Russia and other neighbors that are located in Eastern Europe. The process of turning old traditional Lithuanian economy into a market economy is almost complete. Most of the state owned organizations have been made private. The recent global recession that started from mid of 2008, has greatly affected the economy of the country. In 2007 Lithuania’s real GDP was growing at the rate of almost 8%, but in 2008 the figure came down to 3%. In 2009 the country’s GDP shrank at the rate of 16.8%. Such negative growth is mainly due to the global financial meltdown that has affected almost all the developed and developing economies in the world. In 2008 Lithuania’s GDP per capita was $18,000 and in 2009 the figure reduced to $15,000 per capita. According to the prediction of Bloomberg, Lithuanian economy might have positive growth in 2010. It is also predicted that in 2011 the economy might grow at the rate of 4% (Hà µbemà ¤gi, December 23, 2009). In 2008, unemployment rate was almost 5.84%, but in 2009 it increased to 15%. Inflation rate has decreased from the past. In 2008 inflation rate in the country was 10.9% and in the next year it was around 4.7% (Central Intelligence Agency, n.d.). Lithuania’s economy was in growth track prior to the recession period. In 2007 GDP growth rate was 8.9%, but in the next year this rate was 3% and 2009 Lithuania’s economy was having negative growth rate. It is predicted that in 2010 economy will return on growth track. In 2011 economy is expected to grow at the rate of 3-4%. In 2008 discount rate offered by central bank was 4.73% which is almost unchanged from the previous year when the rate was 4.82%. Hà µbemà ¤gi, T. December 23, 2009, SEB: Lithuanian economy to expand 4% in 2011, Baltic

Post Enron - Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Post Enron - - Research Proposal Example This general understanding of corporate governance and ethics is not sector specific as companies are very unique from one another in terms of size and internal working culture. Poor corporate governance and enforcement hurdles are widely viewed as the structural weakness that resulted to the economic downturn experienced in the late 2008 (Sun, Stewart & Pollard, 2011). The banks that suffered credit crunch were well aware of impending problems but could not alert shareholders and the government about the impending tough economic times. Early detection necessitates adoption of proactive measures that help companies go through tough times. Introduction Corporate governance is the set of guidelines, legislations and processes that directs business operations in any given country. These laws define the relationships existing between top company management with its board of directors, stockholders, employees, suppliers and clients. There are other external publics which the company direc tly or indirectly interacts with in the course of its operations. These include the government, regulatory authorities and the neighbouring community. Corporate governance laws also determine the lines of congruence that the company has with the external business environment. These rules vary from place to place depending on the economic models countries adopt. For instance, some protectionist countries have laws limiting disclosure of local company information to limit economic spying. Despite existing legislations aimed at reducing corporate malpractices, there have been widespread allegations of bribery scandals pitting American multinationals with foreign governments. A New York Times article by David Barstow dated April 21st, 2012 gave alarming reports of Wal-Mart’s Mexican retail outlet involvement in corrupt practices with Mexican public officials. It is alleged that the company’s internal sleuths found that the executives had authorised payments, adding to arou nd 25million dollars, to these recipients so that they can obtain construction permits without doing an environmental impact assessment (Barstow, 2012). This is a big corporate governance issue because of the ripple effects it has caused to both the Mexican and American governments. According to Barstow (2012), to add to the graft accusations, the management is accused of concealing this internal audit information from the top management; this is against the public information disclosure laws set under the American financial sector management guidelines. Wal-Mart has the obligation to make open its internal audit reports since it is a publicly trading company; this is the reason it’s share trading prices fell by over 5 percentage points the next day after the allegations were made public. The Mexican government is establishing the country’s first anti graft law which is meant to stem economic crimes. This is according to Ivan Castano, in his article dated April 27th, 2 012, in response to these alarming allegations that has the potential of eroding the good gains made by the Mexican authorities in tackling economic crimes. The government has moved zealously to get to the bottom of the claims and punish the culprits to improve business environment that is just recovering from drug wars (Castano, 2012). Pedro Hernandez, a partner at

Maccabees and the Struggle with Paganism Essay Example for Free

Maccabees and the Struggle with Paganism Essay Maccabees were found in the books of the Old Testament. It narrated the Jewish historical struggle in their religious traditions. Around 175 B. C. there was a monarch known as Antiochus Epiphanes, son of King Antiochus the third of Syria that ruled the Jews. Jewish people were known to be faithful in the Law given by Moses. During their times, Roman empires were expanding and it included Judea in its empire. The Greeks and Romans both practice polytheism and paganism while the Jews were known as monotheistic. These major religious differences brought conflicts among the different civilizations and cultures. Antiochus and the Suppression of Judaism King Antiochus image as a king was that of a tyrannous, greedy and eccentric ruler. He was the foremost oppressor of the Jews. Even if Roman Empires were tolerant of other existing religious sects, the suppression of the Judaism occurred in their times. At first the Jews were free to exercise Judaism even with the presence of pressures in the virtues of Hellenism. But according to the book of First Maccabees there appeared in the land of Israel a group of traitorous Jews who had no regard for the law and they started to break from their customs. They came in terms with the Gentiles and followed their ways. They even asked the king for permission to follow their customs. This led them to built stadium similar to the Greeks. They even performed surgery to hide their circumcision and they also stop observing the Sabbath. Afterwards Antiochus performed other terrible things in the people of Judea and Jerusalem. He murdered the men in Jerusalem and plundered them with their gold, silver and other valuable things. He even destroyed the Jewish temples and force people to worship other gods and forget about their teachings and moral laws. â€Å"The Awful Horror† was committed to the Jewish people by King Antiochus. The Hasmonean or the Maccabees were the heroes that rebelled against paganism and restored Israel’s religious traditions.

Developing a Hypothesis

Developing a Hypothesis Definitions of hypothesis: The hypothesis is outlined as following: â€Å"Hypotheses square measure single tentative guesses, smart hunches –assumed to be used in fashioning theory or coming up with experiments supposed to tend an immediate experimental take a look at once possible†. (Eric Rogers, 1966) â€Å"A hypothesis may be a suppositious statement of the relation between 2 or additional variables†. (Kerlinger, 1956) â€Å"Hypothesis may be a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between AN freelance and variable quantity.†(Creswell, 1994) Hypothesis is that the main a part of analysis. its vital because it suggests new ways in which of doing the analysis. typically experiments square measure solely conduct to check a hypothesis. Decision-makers typically face things whereby theyre curious about testing hypotheses on the premise of accessible info so take choices on the premise of such testing. In scientific discipline, wherever direct information of population parameter(s) is rare, hypothesis testing is that the typically used strategy for deciding whether or not a sample information provide such support for a hypothesis that generalisation is created. so hypothesis testing permits U.S.A. to form chance statements concerning population parameter(s). The hypothesis might not be tried completely, however in follow its accepted if its withstood a essential testing. Before we have a tendency to make a case for however hypotheses square measure tested through totally different tests meant for the aim, itll be acceptable to elucidate clearly the that means of a hypothesis and also the connected ideas for higher world organisation derstanding of the hypothesis testing techniques. WHAT IS A HYPOTHESIS? Ordinarily, once one talks concerning hypothesis, one merely suggests that a mere assumption or some supposition  to be tried or disproved. except for a research worker hypothesis may be a formal question that he intends to  resolve. so a hypothesis is also outlined as a proposition or a group of proposition set forth as AN  explanation for the prevalence of some such cluster of phenomena either declared simply as a  provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or accepted as extremely probable within the lightweight of  established facts. very often a research hypothesis may be a prophetical statement, capable of being tested  by scientific ways, that relates AN variable to some variable quantity. for instance,  consider statements just like the following ones: â€Å"Students WHO receive counseling can show a larger increase in creative thinking than students not  receiving counselling† Or  Ã¢â‚¬Å"the automobile A is performing arts furthermore as automobile B.† These square measure hypotheses capable of being objectively verified and tested. Thus, we have a tendency to could conclude that  a hypothesis states what we have a tendency to square measure searching for and its a proposition which may be place to a take a look at to  determine its validity. Characteristics of hypothesis: Hypothesis should possess the subsequent characteristics: (i) Hypothesis ought to be clear and precise. If the hypothesis isnt clear and precise, the  inferences drawn on its basis cant be taken as reliable. (ii) Hypothesis ought to be capable of being tested. during a swamp of untestable hypotheses, many  a time the analysis programmes have over-involved. Some previous study is also done by  researcher so as to form hypothesis a testable one. A hypothesis â€Å"is testable if alternative  deductions is made up of it that, in turn, is confirmed or disproved by observation.†1 (iii) Hypothesis ought to state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relative  hypothesis. (iv) Hypothesis ought to be restricted in scope and should be specific. A research worker should keep in mind  that narrower hypotheses square measure typically additional testable and he ought to develop such hypotheses. (v) Hypothesis ought to be explicit as so much as doable in most straightforward terms in order that identical is  easily comprehensible by all involved. however one should keep in mind that simplicity of hypothesis  has nothing to try to to with its significance. (vi) Hypothesis ought to be in keeping with most illustrious facts i.e., it should be in keeping with a  substantial body of established facts. In alternative words, it ought to be one that judges settle for  as being the foremost possible. (vii) Hypothesis ought to be amenable to testing inside an affordable time. One shouldnt use  even a superb hypothesis, if identical cant be tested in affordable time for one  cannot pay a life-time aggregation information to check it. (viii) Hypothesis should make a case for the facts that gave rise to the necessity for rationalization. This means  that by exploitation the hypothesis and alternative illustrious and accepted generalizations, one ought to be  able to deduce the initial downside condition. so hypothesis should truly make a case for what  it claims to explain; it ought to have empirical reference. The null hypothesisrepresents a theory that has been hints, either as a result of its believed to be true or as a result of its to be used asa basis for argument, however has not been tried. Has serious outcome if incorrect call is made! The alternative hypothesisis an announcement of what a hypothesis take a look at is about up to ascertain. Opposite of Null Hypothesis. Only reached if H0is rejected. Frequently â€Å"alternative†is actual desired conclusion of the researcher! The method of hypothesis testing is summarized in four steps. we are going to describe every of those four steps in larger detail in Section eight.2. 1. To begin, we have a tendency to establish a hypothesis or claim that we have a tendency to feel ought to be tested. for instance, wed need to check the claim that the mean range of hours that kids within the us watch TV is three hours. 2. We have a tendency to choose a criterion upon that we have a tendency to decide that the claim being tested is true or not. for instance, the claim is that kids watch three hours of TV per week. Most samples we have a tendency to choose ought to have a mean near or up to  3 hours if the claim we have a tendency to square measure testing is true. therefore at what purpose can we decide that the discrepancy between the sample mean and three is therefore massive that the claim  we square measure testing is probably going not true? we have a tendency to answer this question during this step of hypothesis testing. 3. Choose a random sample from the population and live the sample mean. for instance, we have a tendency to might choose twenty kids and live the time unit (in hours) that they watch TV per week. 4. Compare what we have a tendency to observe within the sample to what we have a tendency to expect to watch if  the claim we have a tendency to square measure testing is true. we have a tendency to expect the sample mean to be around  3 hours. If the discrepancy between the sample mean and population mean is tiny, then {we will|well|we square measure going to} possible decide that the claim we have a tendency to are testing is so true. If the discrepancy is simply too giant, then we are going to possible conceive to reject the claim as being not true. The method of hypothesis testing is summarized in four steps. we are going to describe every of those four steps in larger detail in Section eight.2. 1. To begin, we have a tendency to establish a hypothesis or claim that we have a tendency to feel ought to be tested. for instance, wed need to check the claim that the mean range of hours that kids within the us watch TV is three hours. 2. we have a tendency to choose a criterion upon that we have a tendency to decide that the claim being tested is true or not. for instance, the claim is that kids watch three hours of TV per week. Most samples we have a tendency to choose ought to have a mean near or up to  3 hours if the claim we have a tendency to square measure testing is true. therefore at what purpose can we decide that the discrepancy between the sample mean and three is therefore massive that the claim  we square measure testing is probably going not true? we have a tendency to answer this question during this step of hypothesis testing. 3. choose a random sample from the population and live the sample mean. for instance, we have a tendency to might choose twenty kids and live the time unit (in hours) that they watch TV per week. 4. Compare what we have a tendency to observe within the sample to what we have a tendency to expect to watch if  the claim we have a tendency to square measure testing is true. we have a tendency to expect the sample mean to be around  3 hours. If the discrepancy between the sample mean and population mean is tiny, then {we will|well|we square measure going to} possible decide that the claim we have a tendency to are testing is so true. If the discrepancy is simply too giant, then we are going to possible conceive to reject the claim as being not true. Step 2: Set the standards for a choice. to line the standards for a choice, we have a tendency to state the extent of significance for a take a look at. this can be the same as the criterion that jurors use during a criminal trial. Jurors decide whether or not the proof bestowed shows guilt on the far side an affordable doubt (this is that the criterion). Likewise, in hypothesis testing, we have a tendency to collect information to point out that the null hypothesis isnt true, supported the probability of choosing a sample mean from a population (the likelihood is that the criterion). The probability or level of significance is often set at five-hitter in activity analysis studies. once the chance of getting a sample mean is a smaller amount than five-hitter if the null hypothesis were true, then we have a tendency to conclude that the sample we have a tendency to designated is simply too unlikely and then we have a tendency to reject the null hypothesis. Level of significance, or significance level, refers to a criterion of judgment upon that a choice is created relating to the worth explicit during a null hypothesis. The criterion relies on the chance of getting a data point measured during a sample if the worth explicit within the null hypothesis were true. In activity science, the criterion or level of significance is often set at five-hitter. once the chance of getting a sample mean is a smaller amount than five-hitter if the null hypothesis were true, then we have a tendency to reject the worth explicit within the null hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis establishes wherever to position the extent of significance. keep in mind that we all know that the sample mean can equal the population mean on the average if the null hypothesis is true. All alternative doable values of the sample mean square measure commonly distributed (central limit theorem). The empirical rule tells U.S.A. that a minimum of ninety fifth of all sample suggests that fall inside concerning two customary deviations (SD) of the population mean, that means that theres but a five-hitter chance of getting a  sample mean thats on the far side two South Dakota from the population mean. For the youngsters  watching TV example, we are able to seek for the chance of getting a sample mean  beyond two South Dakota within the higher tail (greater than 3), the lower tail (less than 3), or both  tails (not up to 3). Figure 8.2 shows that the choice hypothesis is employed to  determine that tail or tails to position the extent of significance for a hypothesis take a look at. Step 3: reckon the take a look at data point. Suppose we have a tendency to live a sample mean up to  4 hours per week that kids watch TV. to form a choice, wed like to judge  how possible this sample outcome is, if the population mean explicit by the null  hypothesis (3 hours per week) is true. we have a tendency to use a take a look at data point to work out this  likelihood. Specifically, a take a look at data point tells U.S.A. however so much, or what number customary  deviations, a sample mean is from the population mean. The larger the worth of the  test data point, the any the space, or range of normal deviations, a sample  mean is from the population mean explicit within the null hypothesis. the worth of the  test data point is employed to form a choice in Step four. The take a look at data point may be a mathematical formula that permits researchers to  determine the probability of getting sample outcomes if the null hypothesis  were true. the worth of the take a look at data point is employed to form a choice relating to  the null hypothesis. Step 4: build a choice. we have a tendency to use the worth of the take a look at data point to form a choice  about the null hypothesis. the choice relies on the chance of getting a  sample mean, only if the worth explicit within the null hypothesis is true. If the chance of getting a sample mean is a smaller amount than five-hitter once the null hypothesis is true, then the choice is to reject the null hypothesis. If the chance of getting a sample mean is bigger than five-hitter once the null hypothesis is true, then the choice is to retain the null hypothesis. In sum, there square measure 2 choices a research worker will make: 1. Reject the null hypothesis. The sample mean is related to an occasional chance of prevalence once the null hypothesis is true. 2. Retain the null hypothesis. The sample mean is related to a high chance of prevalence once the null hypothesis is true. The chance of getting a sample mean, only if the worth explicit within the null hypothesis is true, is explicit by the p worth. The p worth may be a probability: It varies between zero and one and may neer be negative. In Step 2, we have a tendency to explicit the criterion or chance of getting a sample mean at that purpose we are going to conceive to reject the worth explicit within the null hypothesis, that is often set at five-hitter in activity analysis. to form a choice, we have a tendency to compare the p worth to the criterion we have a tendency to set in Step two. A p worth is that the chance of getting a sample outcome, only if the worth explicit within the null hypothesis is true. The p worth for getting a sample outcome is compared to the extent of significance. Significance, or applied mathematics significance, describes a choice created regarding a worth explicit within the null hypothesis. once the null hypothesis is rejected, we have a tendency to reach significance. once the null hypothesis is preserved, we have a tendency to fail to achieve significance. When the p worth is a smaller amount than five-hitter (p < .05), we have a tendency to reject the null hypothesis. we are going to talk over with p < .05 because the criterion for deciding to reject the null hypothesis, though note that once p = .05, the choice is additionally to reject the null hypothesis. When the  p worth is bigger than five-hitter (p > .05), we have a tendency to retain the null hypothesis. the choice to reject or retain the null hypothesis is named significance.

Changing Nature Of Work And Family Conflict Social Work Essay

Changing Nature Of Work And Family Conflict Social Work Essay There are past literature reviews related to work and family conflict, but hardly any review which gives a quick overview of work and family research in global context. This paper outlines both the positive and negative outcomes associated with work and family interface, theoretical models related to work and family research, antecedents and consequences of work and family interface, importance of topics in work and family study and future implications of work and family interface. Introduction In the 21st century it is a challenge for many working families to maintain a balance between work and family. The increased participation of married women in the labour force has led to a growing realization that work and family domains are highly interdependent. Duxbury and Higgins (1991) reported that due to the increasing prevalence of dual bread-winner families and single working parents, workers are facing more challenges in meeting the demands of work and family. Issues of work and family have always been a part of our life. Lopata and Norr (1980) suggest that work and family issues have gained greater importance because the stereotypic life-course pattern is changing and more flexible options are available. Killien, Habermann, and Jarrett (2001) reported that in more than 50% of all married couples in United States of America, both partners work outside the home. In the western and dual earner couples are the norm today, representing 54% of married couples in the U.S. in 2001 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). The interference of the home and work domain has been identified as one of the ten major stressors in the work place (Kelloway, Gottlieb, Barham, 1999). The spillover from work and family can be negative or positive and is bi-directional; it involves the transfer of mood and behaviour from one domain (home or workplace) to the other (Almeida, Wethington, Chandler, 1999; Bromet, Dew, Parkinson, 1990). Work can be very important and can have positive effects for people (e.g. Rothbard, 2001). A balanced life can give multiple sources of satisfaction (Baruch Barnett, 1893), and can provide many people with social support, opportunities for increased self-efficacy and an expanded frame of reference (Barnett Hyde, 2001). If the workers are unable to make the balance between work and family roles, the potential for conflict between the roles increases (Frone, Russell, Cooper, 1992a; Greenhaus Powell, 2003). Work and family conflict is emerging as a research topic because there have b een significant changes in the social conceptions of gender, parenthood and work identity (Beach, 1989). Work and Family from the Conflict and Balance Perspective Voydanoff (2004b) reported that work and family conflict and work family balance are independent constructs rather than opposite ends of a single continuum. Work and family conflict is based on the principle of scarcity theory. The scarcity theory of human energy assumes that personal resources of time, energy, and attention are fixed. The scarcity hypothesis also suggests that the multiple roles inevitably reduce the time and energy available to meet all role demands, thus creating strain (Goode, 1960) and work-family conflict (Marks, 1977). Work and family conflict has been defined as a form of interrole conflict in which role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect (Greenhaus Beutell, 1985, p.77; Greenhaus Powell, 2003). Work and family conflict occurs when the demands of work are in disharmony with the demands of family (Bruck, Allen Spector, 2002). Boundaries of work and family are asymmetrically permeable, such that work interfere s with family life and family life interferes with work (Eagel, Miles Icenogle, 1997; Frone, Russell Cooper, 1992b). The incompatibilities between the two roles are based on the three different forms of work and home conflict: time based, strain based and behaviour based (Greenhaus Beutell, 1985). Time based conflict occurs when the time demanded by the family puts pressure on work and the time demanded at work take away from spending quality time with the family. Parasuraman, Purohit, Godshalk, and Beutell (1996) hypothesized that commitments of time represent an important cause of work and family conflict (WFC). This hypothesis is based on the view that time is a limited resource. If a person devotes his time to a given role e.g. work, the less time that person has to meet the family role. Strain based conflict occur when stress from one domain shifts to another domain. Bartolome and Evans (1979) explained strain based conflict as the extent to which an individual preoccupied w ith one role (e.g. family) stressed someone attempting to meet the demands of another role (e.g. work). Behaviour based conflict occurs when behaviour makes it difficult to fulfil the requirements in another role. Behaviour based conflict refers to the display of specific behaviors in one domain that are incongruous with desired behaviors within the second domain, where norms and role expectations in one area of life are in- compatible with those required in the other domain (O Driscoll, Brough, Kalliath, 2006, p. 118). Several researchers acknowledge that the direction of conflict is an essential element and that both work-to- family and family-to-work conflict need to be identified (e.g., Frone, Russell, Cooper, 1997; Higgins Duxbury, 1992). WFC was originally operationalized as an uni-dimensional construct (Kopelman, Greenhaus, Connolly, 1983). The recent studies by Carlson, Kacmar, and Williams (2000) and Frone et al. (1992, 1997) have explained that work family conflict is a multidimentional concept work can interfere family; (WIF) as well as family can interfere work; (FIW). Frone (2003) reported a four dimensional model of work-family balance, that is direction of influence between work and family roles (i.e. work-to-family and family to work) and type of effect (conflict versus facilitation). The studies by Aryee, Luk, Leung and Lo (1999); Frone, (2003); Netemeyer, Boles and McMurrian (1996) and Williams and Alliger, (1994) reported that the prevalence of WIF conflict is greater than FIW conflict. A study by Roehling, Moen, and Batt (2003) reported that family life enhances work life to a greater degree than work life enhances family life. Marks (1977) (also see Sieber, 1974) proposed a theoretical alternative to the scarcity theory, which he called the role expansion theory. The role expansion theory Marks proposed assumed that human energy is abundant and participation in one role could also have a positive effect on the other role. The potential benefits of engaging in both work and family roles have largely been overlooked (Brockwood, Hammer, Neal, 2003; Hanson, Colton, Hammer, 2003). The terms work and family enrichment, positive spillover, work and family enhancement and work and family facilitation are used for the positive relationship between work and family. Work and family facilitation is a form of synergy in which resources associated with one role enhance or make participation in the other role easier (Voydanoff, 2004a). Better functioning of both work and family adds a more positive look at the interaction between work and home, allowing for the possibility of synergy between work and home (Zedeck, 1992 ). ODriscoll (1996) examined the processes of role enhancement where multiple roles energize the individuals and give them more satisfaction in work and family roles. In addition, employees today are more likely to express a strong desire to have a harmonious balance between work and family (Offermann Gowing, 1990; Zedeck Mosier, 1990). Barnett and Hyde (2001) also proposed an expansionist theory of work and family and they explained several benefits of combining multiple roles. They stated that multiple roles give benefits such as added income, more sources of social support, greater self complexity and more shared experiences between men and women. The success in one role can buffer failure in another role. The idea of an interaction between work and family comes from statistical models where two effects combine to provide something that is greater than would have been predicted from either one alone ( Halpern Murphy, 2005, p. 4). Research has also found a modest positive correlation between work and family commitment (Marks MacDermid, 1996). The exchange theory of Pittman (1994) defines work-family fit as an assessment of the balance between the spheres and may be considered the acceptability to the multidimensional exchange between a family and work organization (p. 135). Pittman referred to work-family fit as an assessment of balance between work and family. There are many empirical studies that have abundantly examined work-home conflict, whereas there have been fewer studies on positive work-home interaction (Geurts Demerouti, 2003). At the same time, there are few instruments available to measure work and family balance than work and family conflict (Carlson, Kacmar, Wayne, Grzywacz, 2006). Later in this paper I discuss work and family from the scarcity theory perspective in more detail. Theoretical Models related to Work and Family Research Researchers have proposed a several ways in which the work and family domains may be linked (Edwards Rothbard, 2000; Lambert, 1990). Earlier work and family research were based on three popular hypotheses (Cohen, 1997): segregation (segmentation), compensation, and spillover. Segregation refers to the separation of work and family in which there is no systematic connection between work and family roles (Edwards Rothbard, 2000). Segregation also refers to the separation of work and family from the psychological, physical, temporal and functional point of view, and suggests that this is the best way to keep a boundary between work and family (Lambert, 1990). Compensation refers to the negative relationship between the work and family role. If a person is dissatisfied in one role of life, it offsets satisfaction in another (Burke Greenglass, 1987). Spillover can be seen in terms of work and family mood, value, skills, and behavior spillover. The spillover model of work and family ref ers to the positive and negative feelings, attitudes and behaviors that might emerge in one domain and are carried over into the other (Googins, 1991, p. 9). Kabanoff and O Brien (1980) have expanded the spillover and compensation hypothesis by analyzing the work and family activities in five dimensions (autonomy, variety, skill utilization, pressure and social interaction). A comprehensive model of the work-family interface was developed and tested by Frone et al. (1992a). This model introduced a major change in the theories of work and family conflict. The model extended prior research by explicitly distinguishing between work interfering with family and family interfering with work. This distinction allowed testing of hypothesis concerning the unique antecedents and outcomes of both forms of work-family conflict and the reciprocal relationship between them. Frone et al. (1997) developed an integrative model of the work-family interface. This model extends prior work by Frone et al. (1992a). Although this present model adopts the distinction between WIF and FIW, several important changes have been incorporated. First, a more explicit attempt is made to model the reciprocal (i.e., feedback) relations between work and family life. Second, a distinction is drawn between proximal and distal predictors of work-family conflict. Third, the relations between work-family conflict and role related affect have been differentiated into predictive and outcome relations. Finally, role related behavior and behavioral intentions have been explicitly incorporated into the model. Bronfenbrenner (1989) developed an ecological systems theory which stands in contrast to the individual, deterministic perspective of the structural-functionalist role theory. The ecological systems theory suggests that the work-family experience is a joint function of process, person, context and time characteristics. Ecological theory suggests that each type of characteristic exerts an additive, and potentially interactive, effect on the work-family experience. Researchers have used this framework to guide the study of work-family conflict (e.g., Grzywacz, 2000; Hammer, Bauer, Grandey, 2003; Voydanoff, 2002). From the perspective of ecological systems theory, work, community and family are microsystems consisting of networks of face-to-face relationships (Bronfenbrenner, 1989). When two or more microsystems are interrelated, such as work, family and community, the processes connecting them form two types of mesosystems. In one way, we can find direct relationships within one or mo re microsystems. The relationship within the work, family and community may be positive or negative, unidirectional or reciprocal. From another perspective, we can see the combined effect of these microsystems on individual, community and work outcomes. Grzywacz and Marks (2000) examined the work and family interface using the ecological systems theory. They found four dimensions in the experience of the work and family interface: negative work-to-family spillover, negative family to work spillover, positive work to family spillover and positive family to work spillover. Also, they reported that the ecological resources at work (i.e. decision latitude, co-worker and supervisor support) and family (i.e. spouse and family support) were associated with lower levels of negative spillover and higher level of positive work-family spillover. They also found that ecological barriers at work (i.e. work pressure) and family (i.e. spouse disagreement and family criticism burden) was associated with higher levels of negative work-family spillover. Senecal, Vallerand and Guay (2001) proposed and tested a model of work-family conflict based on the Self-Determination Theory and the Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. Individuals who perform an activity out of choice and pleasure regulate their behaviour in a self-determined manner. Individuals also do activities out of internal and external pressures, which regulate their behavior in a non-self-determined way (Deci Ryan, 1985; 1991). The model posits that positive interpersonal factors both at work (i.e. ones employer) and at home (e.g. ones spouse) influence work and family motivation. But low levels of self-determined motivation towards the two life contexts (work and family) facilitate the experience of family alienation, which leads to work-family conflict. Finally, work-family conflict leads to feelings of emotional exhaustion. Results from structural equation modeling supported this model. Although the model was supported by data from both men and wom en, some sex differences were uncovered at the mean level. Voydanoff (2002) proposed a conceptual model that links the work-family interface to work, family and individual outcomes through several mediating mechanisms. First, the work-family interface is related to a cognitive assessment of work and family conflict, role balance or role enhancement. This relationship may be moderated by social categories and coping resources. The assessment of conflict, balance or enhancement can result in either work-family role strain or work-family role ease. Then, depending on the extent of strain or ease, individuals and families pursue various work-family adaptive strategies designed to improve or facilitate adjustment to various aspects of work and family interface. The success of these strategies is indicated by the extent of perceived work-family fit. Work-family fit is related directly to work, family and individual outcomes. Lastly, work-family adaptive strategies are proposed as having feedback effects on the work family interface. Boundary theory (Ashforth, Kreiner, Fugate, 2000; Nippert-Eng, 1996) and Border theory (Clark, 2000; Michelson Johnson, 1997) state that each one of a persons roles takes place within a specific domain of life, and these that domains are separated by borders that may be physical, temporal, or psychological (Ashforth et al. 2000; Clark, 2000). Boundary/border theory specifically addresses the issue of crossing borders between domains. Although this theory is relevant to all domains of life, its most common application is to the domains of home and work. According to the boundary/border theory, the flexibility and permeability of the boundaries between peoples work and family lives will affect the level of integration, the ease of transitions, and the level of conflict between these domains (Ashforth et al. 2000; Clark, 2000; Nippert-Eng, 1996). Loy and Frenkel (2005) present societal cultural models of work and family. They explained that societal cultures vary by race, ethnicity, social class, and region. They explained that although the number of dual-earner families has risen in all industrialized nations countries, the families vary in the ways they address work-family conflict, in part, due to differences in societal cultures. Recognizing the importance of cultural models of gender, work and family has consequences for the construction of states and organizational policies. Hobfoll (1989) developed the conservation of resources (COR) model. According to this model individuals seek to acquire and maintain resources including objects, personal characteristics, conditions and energies. Stress occurs when there is a loss of resources or a threat of loss. The COR model proposes that work and family conflict leads to stress because resources (e.g., time and energy) are lost in the process of juggling both work and family roles p. 352). Grandey and Cropanzano (1999) argue that the conservation of resources model is an improvement over role theory. Until recently, work and family researchers have relied mainly upon role theory (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, Rosenthal, 1964). According to the COR model role theory has some limitations because it has paid less attention to family roles. On the other hand, the COR model encompasses several stress theories, and explains stress outcomes for both intra and interrole stress. The individual difference variables in stress patterns are also included in the COR model and treated as resources. Finally, the COR model also provides an additional insight that has not been widely considered in WFC literature. The model has emphasis on threatened resources and suggests that certain critical events are the source of stress as well. The Grandey and Cropanzano (1999) study is the only study which has tested the application of the COR model to work and family research. An extensive body of research is based on theories of role strain and role enhancement and addresses the effects of performing multiple roles (in the family and the work place). According to role theorists, a role is a set of activities or behaviors that others expect an individual to perform (Kahn et al. 1964). Thus, an increase in roles gives rise to an increase in role conflict. Role stress theory proposes that the greater the role accumulation, the greater the demands and role incompatibility and the greater the role conflict and strain (Burr, Leigh, Day, Constantine, 1979; Goode, 1960). Role conflict is defined as the simultaneous occurrence of two (or more) sets of role pressures such that compliance with one would make more difficult the compliance with the other (Kahn et al. 1964, p. 19). At the same time a number of empirical studies support role enhancement theory (e.g., Barnet and Hyde, 2001; Waldron, Weiss, Sieber, 1974). After the development of all the above-mentioned models in work and family, Carlson et al. (2000) proposed a six-dimensional model of work and family conflict. Their model include three forms of conflict (time based, strain based and behavior based conflict) and two directions of conflict (WIF and FIW) which results in a six-dimensional model of work and family conflict (see figure 1). Figure1. (Source: Carlson, Kacmar, Williams, 2000, p. 251). Explain the model describe Antecedents and Consequences of Work and Family Jacobs and Gerson (2001) reported that the vast increase in working mothers, single parents and dual earner couples means that more workers than ever are attempting to balance work and family life. As a result, the majority of working parents feel that they have a shortage of time to fulfill their multiple life roles (Hochschild, 1997). Researchers have considered a number of different variables as possible antecedents of WIF and FIW. Consistent with the classification scheme of Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, and Brinley (2005) regarding antecedents of work-family conflict, antecedents can be classified into three categories: work domain variables, non-work domain variables, and individual and demographic variables. Work domain variables and work and family conflict There are more studies examining the work domain as predictors of WFC than the family domain as predictors of FWC. WIF interaction has been given more research attention than that given to FIW interaction (Eagle, Miles, Icenogle, 1997; Higgins Duxbury, 1992). Job demands, job control and social support were the most discussed antecedents of work. The Job Demand- Control (JDC) model reported two crucial job aspects in the work situation: job demands and job control (Karasek, 1979). In the 1980s, a social dimension was added to this model and called job demand-control and support (JDCS) model. Job demands refer to the work load, and have been operationalized mainly in terms of time pressure and role conflict (Karasek, 1985). The central component of job demand is the tasks mental workload and the mental alertness or arousal needed to carry out the task. Three types of job demands are included in this theory: time demands, monitoring demands and problem solving demands (Karasek Theor ell, 1990, p. 63). The job characteristics mentioned by the demands, control and support models have been reported in a number of work and family studies (e.g., Grzywacz Butler, 2005; Grzywacz Marks, 2000; ODriscoll, Ilgen, Hildreth, 1992; Pal Saksvik, 2006; 2008). Employees who had higher job demand, lower job control and less social support were more likely to experience high levels of work-family conflict (Grzywacz Marks, 2000; Pleck, Staines, Lang, 1980). At the same time, there are many studies focused on working hours, long hours of work, long days and the relation to WFC (Carlson Perrewe, 1999; Grzywacz Marks, 2000; Keith Schafer, 1980; Pleck, et al. 1980; Reich, 2000). A natural conclusion is that those who work long hours and days are not able to give time to the family. The average number of hours a couple worked in America in 1997 was ten hours a week more than the average couple in 1970 (Jacobs Gerson, 1998). Toterdell, Spelten, Smith, Barton, and Folkard (1995 ) reported that employees who work in different shifts reported work and family conflict because shift work leads to sleep disturbance and interferes with social life. Demerouti, Geurts, Bakker and Euwema (2004), in a study on military police, reported that fixed non day shifts including weekends (i.e., during highly valuable times) should be avoided in order to minimize the conflict between work and family. Length and difficulties of the commute to and from work has also been shown to be related to WIF conflict (Bohen Viveros-Long, 1981; Pleck et al. 1980). The relocation of work also gives rise to negative work and family consequences (Munton, 1990). Management support and recognition (Burke, 1988; Love, Galinsky, Hughes, 1987), the levels of work role assigned to work roles (Greenhaus and Kopelman, 1981; Greenhaus and Parasuraman, 1987), role overload at work (Bacharach et al., 1991), and individuals highly involved in work (Frone et al. 1992a; Greenhaus, Parasuraman, Granrose, Rabinowitz Beutell, 1989; Hammer, Allen, Grigsby, 1997) are also important factors related to WIF conflict. Job insecurity or concern over losing ones job is a strain based demand that threatens the economic well-being necessary for the stability and quality of family life. The stress associated with job insecurity reduces interpersonal availability and limits effective participation in family life. One study reported that job insecurity is positively related to WFC for men and women (Batt Valcour, 2003), whereas another study found this relationship for women but not for men (Kinnunen Mauno, 1998). Several studies also reported a significant relationship between WFC and job satisfaction (Coverman, 1989; Rice, Frone, Mcfarlin, 1992). Organizational commitment is another work-related variable that has been studied in association with WFC. Netemeyer et al. (1996); Good et al., (1998) and ODriscoll et al. (1992) found that as WFC increases, the organizational commitment decreases. Greater levels of WFC are associated with increased intentions to leave the organization (Grandey Cropanzano, 1999; Good et al. 1988). Wayne, Musica and Fleeson (2004) and Grandey, Cordeiro, and Crouter (2005) proposed that attributing the source of the work and family conflict to the work domain is associated with reduced satisfaction with the work role, whereas attributing it to the family domain contributes to lower marital quality. Research suggests that a supportive organizational culture, supervisor, or mentor is generally beneficial in reducing WFC. Several studies have found that work support (Carlson Perrewe, 1999; Greenhaus et al. 1987; Thompson, Beauvais, Lyness, 1999), the availability of work-family benefits (Thompson et al., 1999), having a mentor (Nielson et al. 2001), receiving more role modeling and overall mentor support (Nielson et al. 2001), and having a mentor who was perceived as having similar work-family values (Nielson et al., 2001) are related to less WFC. At the same time, job satisfaction buffers the relationship between hours spent helping parents and psychological distress for mothers (Voydanoff Donnelly, 1999). Having a flexible work schedules is ranked as the most valuable benefit option for employees (Allen, 2001). Family domain variables and family and work conflict Numerous studies have examined characteristics of the family domain as predictors of WFC and family involvement as adversely influenced by work-related concerns (Burke Greenglass, 1987). Research into WIF conflict and FIW conflict antecedents in the family domain has found positive linkages between WIF conflict and FIW conflict and marital status (Herman Gyllstrom, 1977), size and developmental stage of the family (Herman Gyllstrom, 1977; Keith Schafer, 1980), level of importance assigned to family roles (Greenhaus Parasuraman, 1987), family stressors (parental workload, extent of childrens misbehavior, lack of spouse support, and the degree of tension in the marital relationship) and family involvement (Frone et al. 1992a). Negative relationships were found between WIF conflict and spouse and family support (Bruke, 1988; Greenhaus Kopelman, 1981). Indeed, Suchet and Barling (1986) found evidence for spouse support as a moderator of WIF. A study by Higgins and Duxbury (1992) wh ich revealed that males in dual career couples (that is, male breadwinner and fulltime housewife) found WFC related to life satisfaction. Studies by Bedeian, Burke and Moffett (1988); Greenhaus, Bedeian and Mossholder (1987), and Parasuraman et al. (1989) found that WFC was strongly related to quality of life. Some studies that take into account the bi-directional nature of work-home interferences suggest that home characteristics are more likely to foster home-work interference. For example, Frone et al. (1992a) have shown that whereas job stressors were positively related to work work interferes with family, family stressors (e.g. parental workload and lack of spouse support) were positively related to family interfering with work. They even argue that the positive relationships between family stressors and WHI suggested and documented in previous research (e.g. Burke, 1988; Kopelman et al. 1983; Voydanoff, 1988) are, in fact, indirect relationships through family interferes with work. Individual and demographic variables Gender, marital status and age are frequently described as the most important demographic characteristics influencing work and family. Byron (2005) found that demographic variables tend were weak predictors of WIF and FIW; although they did tended to have indirect effects on WIF and FIW. This coincides with recent theory that supports the use of social categories as moderators in the work-family literature (Voydanoff, 2002). In general, being male appears to exacerbate any negative effects of family domain antecedents, such as family stress, family conflict, number of children, and marital status, related to work-family conflict. Paradoxically, females tend to enjoy greater protective benefits from those antecedents, such as flexible work schedules, and, to some extent supportive families, which lessen the experience of interferences. Ones life stages also influence work and family conflict (Barnett, Gareis, James, Steele, 2003). A study by Burke and Greenglass (1999) found that age is positively related to work-family conflict. Grazywacs and Marks (2000) examined the effects of age on the experience of positive and negative work and family interaction. They found that young men reported more negative spillover between work and family and less positive spillover between family to work than older men, while younger women reported more positive spillover from work to family, and more negative spillover from family to work than did older women. Personality should also be given greater consideration in understanding how an individual views and experience multiple life roles (Carlson, 1999; Wayne et al. 2004). Friede and Ryan (2005) discuss the role of personality in interpreting work and family. Behavior based conflict is also linked to the personality of an individual and is one of the main predictors of WFC. Carlson (1999) reported that it occurs when there is incompatibility between the behaviors at either the work place or the home. Personality can influence the actual type and amount of work and family role requirements that an individual experiences his or her, perception of work and family role requirements and the approach to work and family interface. There is the need for a greater recognition of individual differences in work and family theorizing. Some may ignore this because of a concern that focusing on individual differences, such as personality, is not a key influence of work and family conflict and work and family enhancement. But this may lead to viewing problems in work and life balancing as individual responsibility, with little or no accountability on the part of the firm or of societal institutions (Friede Ryan, 2005, p. 204). Emotional stability (Kinnunen, Vermulst, Gerris, Makikangas, 2003) and self esteem (Greenhaus Powell, 2003) are also linked to the work-family conflict. Finally, researchers discovered that interpersonal attachment styles (Sumer Knight, 2001), and psychological involvement in work and family roles (Adams, King, King, 1996; Frone et al. 1992a) are linked to work and family conflict. Importance research Topics in Work and Family Study Gender and work-family interface- Gender refers to the set of culturally expected personality, behavior, and attitude attributes associated with being male or female in any given society. Much gendering takes place in the context of family, where the feminine social ideals are what makes a good mother or a good daughter or a good wife, and the masculine social ideals are reflected in notions of the ideal father or the ideal husband (Simon, 1995). The literature on gender, work and family reveals that a gender difference is found when interpreting work and family. Women exper

The Power Struggle in Vladimir Nabokovs Lolita :: Nabokov Lolita Essays

The Power Struggle in Lolita      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   According to literary theories and the theories of Fredrich Nietzsche, human beings have an unquenchable urge for power and will use "ethics," and everything else, in order to increase their authority. In Nabokov's Lolita, we see how Humbert controls Lolita in the beginning stages of their relationship but eventually finds himself going mad because of her deceitful ways and the control she has over his sexual desires.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The novel introduces HumbertHumbert, a man with charm and the dignity of being a teacher in Paris. Yet, we instantly find he is a sexually disturbed man, lusting for young, prepubescent girls. His perversions are obvious--we can tell from his journal--and the ideas are highly obsessive with the topic of young girls. His mind is always on his first true love, his young Annabel, who died a short time after his first sexual encounter with her. Humbert says, "I see Annabel in such general terms as: 'honey-colored skin,' 'thin arms,' 'brown bobbed hair,' 'long lashes,' 'big bright mouth' (11). This, in fact, becomes his outline for a nymphet, or a girl between the ages of 9 and 14. One who meets his strict criteria is to become a gem in his eyes, yet treated with the same objectivity as a whore. He considers them all sexual objects for his enjoyment because he is a man who wishes to dominate these girls at such a young age.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Using Nietzsche's theories on power and dominance over others, we can see that Humbert is a man who meets his criterion of someone driven on obtaining the control and respect of those who can be easily manipulated. In a theory entitled "The Superman," he writes:      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The strong man must rid himself of all idea that it is disgraceful to yield to his acute and ever-present yearning for still more strength. There must be an abandonment of the old slave-morality and a transvaluation of moral values. The will to power must be emancipated from the bonds of that system of ethics which brands it with infamy. (Mencken 105)      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Nietzsche sees someone with total power as one with no regard for anyone other than himself.

Comparing the Behavior of Characters in Richard III :: William Shakespeare

RICHARD III Compare the behavior and reactions of Richard, Anne and Elizabeth in Act One Scene Two and Act Four Scene Four. In the start of both scenes, both Elizabeth and Anne are enraged and verbally attack Richard. Both women did not intend to marry Richard. hard was a very clever man, until he became king. He became over confident and did not even realise when he was losing a battle with the not-so-soft Elizabeth. He was successful with the weak, tenderhearted Anne in Act one Scene Two. He was very ruthless. He was very determined to get what he wanted, whatever he had to do for it. In Act Scene Two, Richard is very clever and intelligent with his moves in convincing Anne to marry him. In fact his knowledge and organisation led him to having three stages of development in manipulating Anne. Anne was an easy target though. He thought that Elizabeth was just as easy to convince, so he did not put any extra effort in. But little did he know that that extra effort would have saved his life. He totally put aside his manipulation skills and took it calm and easy in Act Four Scene Four, so he had to get quite desperate at the end of the scene. He was satisfied to know that he won both oral battles against the ladies, at least he thought so. But Elizabeth was not as weak as poor Anne was. She had a couple of tricks up her sleeve. She was aware of Richard’s evil plans. She had a feeling Richard had slaughtered her dear sons, as well as innocent lady Anne. She knew for sure that he had murdered Anne’s husband and father in-law. And she had a feeling that he had done more harm than what meets the eye. She acted as though she gave in and made the path clear for Richard to marry her daughter (Elizabeth, of the same name). Richard had weakened since he had become king and was no longer ruthless as he had no reason to be ruthless. He had got what he wanted and was pleased with himself. He thought he was invincible, and he was too confident, which cost him his life. If he had been more careful, he would have been aware of the danger that lied before him. But, he did use some similar techniques in both the scenes. Comparing the Behavior of Characters in Richard III :: William Shakespeare RICHARD III Compare the behavior and reactions of Richard, Anne and Elizabeth in Act One Scene Two and Act Four Scene Four. In the start of both scenes, both Elizabeth and Anne are enraged and verbally attack Richard. Both women did not intend to marry Richard. hard was a very clever man, until he became king. He became over confident and did not even realise when he was losing a battle with the not-so-soft Elizabeth. He was successful with the weak, tenderhearted Anne in Act one Scene Two. He was very ruthless. He was very determined to get what he wanted, whatever he had to do for it. In Act Scene Two, Richard is very clever and intelligent with his moves in convincing Anne to marry him. In fact his knowledge and organisation led him to having three stages of development in manipulating Anne. Anne was an easy target though. He thought that Elizabeth was just as easy to convince, so he did not put any extra effort in. But little did he know that that extra effort would have saved his life. He totally put aside his manipulation skills and took it calm and easy in Act Four Scene Four, so he had to get quite desperate at the end of the scene. He was satisfied to know that he won both oral battles against the ladies, at least he thought so. But Elizabeth was not as weak as poor Anne was. She had a couple of tricks up her sleeve. She was aware of Richard’s evil plans. She had a feeling Richard had slaughtered her dear sons, as well as innocent lady Anne. She knew for sure that he had murdered Anne’s husband and father in-law. And she had a feeling that he had done more harm than what meets the eye. She acted as though she gave in and made the path clear for Richard to marry her daughter (Elizabeth, of the same name). Richard had weakened since he had become king and was no longer ruthless as he had no reason to be ruthless. He had got what he wanted and was pleased with himself. He thought he was invincible, and he was too confident, which cost him his life. If he had been more careful, he would have been aware of the danger that lied before him. But, he did use some similar techniques in both the scenes.